by Eric Feigenbaum
As a child of Southern California, I knew the importance of water conservation from a young age. During my high school years, the state was experiencing one of its regular extreme droughts and we were encouraged to take five-minute showers – turning off the water to lather and shampoo.
It all made perfect sense since in fourth grade we learned about the great aqueducts that moved runoff from the Sierra Nevada snowpack to Southern California – our literal lifelines. While it isn’t true that it never rains in Southern California – and when it does it can be destructive – Los Angeles gets an average of 14.7 inches of rain per year. Hardly enough to sustain its population.
California perennially struggles with water and it seems is always trying to catch up with its needs.
Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia – just one degree north of the equator – Singapore receives an average of 85 to 95 inches of rain per year with a surge to 117.52 in 2025. With 287.4 square miles to its name – slightly smaller than the City of Los Angeles’ 469 square miles and significantly smaller than the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area’s 4853.1 square miles – it doesn’t seem like water would be one of Singapore’s issues.
But it has been – for more than 65 years. In fact, much like California, water is one of Singapore’s greatest vulnerabilities and perennial issues.
Really – Singapore’s water issues break down into two intertwined problems: independence and volume.
Volume was its original problem. Even before independence in 1965, Singapore did not have enough water to provide for its citizens and agriculture without supplementation. In 1961 and 1962 while still under British dominion, the Malayan mainland agreed to supply Singapore from two water sources under long-term agreements – one which elapsed in 2011 and the other which remains in effect until 2061 giving Singapore 250 million gallons per day (mgd).
Only, at present, Singapore operates at a baseline of 440 mgd. And as we can see, the clock on that important 250 mgs is ticking.
This is why from independence, founding Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew said, “Every other policy has to bend at the knees for our water survival.”
The Singapore River and Kallang Basin had long been polluted and became an early focus for rehabilitation. While they could not yield enough water to solve the nascent island nation’s problems, they had the distinct advantage of being 100 percent local. Their restoration took ten years to complete.
Still, Singapore needed a more comprehensive solution and in 1980, the government announced one: The Four National Taps.
Local catchment water — expanded to cover about two-thirds of the island’s land area including a large storage capacity at the Marina Reservoir completed in 2008
Imported water — from Malaysia under the 1962 Agreement and for many years accounted for 50 percent of supply.
NEWater – high-grade reclaimed water — launched 2002–2003.
Desalinated water — the first of five plants went online 2005, the most recent in 2022
While catchment water figures are not regularly published, the island’s newfound ability to draw water from such a large portion of its land mass and to store it within its now 17 reservoirs has been a game changer. Because the amount of rain changes both by season and even year, it can account for as much as 200 mgd of potable water, but more frequently may sit around 80-100 mgd.
Singapore’s second prime minister, Goh Chok Tong, noted at the official launch of the NEWater system in 2003, described NEWater – wastewater reclaimed to become potable – as “more than a clean and safe product. It is a strategic concept” that multiplies every drop of water and moves Singapore toward self-sufficiency. He noted that by the time the 1961 Agreement expired in 2011 Singapore would not need to renew it, and by 2061 it could be totally self-sufficient if needed. He also publicly drank NEWater to build public confidence.
Amazingly, Singapore largely engineered and built its own five desalination plants – relying on certain products such as reverse osmosis membranes and other components manufactured in the United States and Japan. Together, they produce 190 mgd or roughly 43 percent of current water demand. The Singaporean companies responsible for the desalination plants have not only grown considerably, but have sold desalination technology to countries such as Algeria and China.
Thus, Singapore’s third prime minister, Lee Hsien Loong frequently talked about how Singapore turned a strategic vulnerability into a strength – not only through the success of the Four National Taps but also for the way NEWater and desalination technology development bolstered Singaporean innovation and economic growth.
Included in its successes is making water safe out of the tap, which is not only the standard of developed nations, but gives Singapore the opportunity to reduce reliance on single-use plastic and other materials. For many of its neighbors, bottled water plays a large part of the drinking supply particularly in Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The alternative in many cases are parasites and diseases. While several factors play a part, one of the biggest – even for countries and cities (like Bangkok) that have adequate water treatment plants is contamination within the pipes themselves. Plastic PVC pipelines and broken or corroding metal pipes often make the water heading from treatment plant to homes and businesses as unsafe or more than pre-treatment. Sadly, bottled water is usually much more within people’s means that installing quality water filtration systems in their homes and businesses.
Beyond that, due to significant uses of technology, strong monitoring and high standards, Singapore not only has the safest, cleanest water in its region – but compares favorably to much of the developed world including numerous European countries. This couples well with Singapore’s public health efforts, moves to support longevity and reduction in communicable and tropical diseases since its inception.
“Why do you think we spend all these efforts to solve our water problem until we become specialists in water? … We should not gloss over our worries. They are real problems. And we are what we are because we can stand up for ourselves. If we can’t, we’ve had it,” Lee Kuan Yew said.
Following the numbers, it’s easy to think Singapore is doing just fine now. With 250 mgd from Malaysia, 190 mgd from desalination, another 175 mgd from NEWater and up to 200 mgd from catchment – Singapore easily exceeds the 440 mgd it currently requires. In fact, even cutting the 250 mgd from Malaysia, Singapore is still likely fine.
Can’t Singaporean leaders pat themselves on the back for a job well done?
Yes – the accomplishment of moving from an inadequate water supply to one with excess capacity in 60 years is more than impressive. Plans that spanned decades and generations of leaders held and were often improved as new technology emerged.
However, today’s excess is tomorrow’s drought. Singapore expects to nearly double its water needs over the next 30 years. It may be coming from a place of strength, but Singapore has not yet won the marathon.
As current Prime Minister Lawrence Wong said at 2023 World Water Day:
“With the world facing a water crisis, Singapore must not take what it has for granted as clean, fresh water is a precious resource. For Singapore to have a sustainable water supply, the country has to keep planning ahead, build up its infrastructure, and invest in new technologies.”
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